Péter Bozó: Operetta in Hungary, 1859–1960*

Origins and First Attempts  •  The End of the Nineteenth Century  •  At the Beginning of the Twentieth Century  •  Between the Two World Wars  •  After the Second World War  •  Selected Bibliography

Origins and First Attempts

Like in Vienna and in London, the beginnings of the genre operetta in Hungary are related to the appearance of Jacques Offenbach’s (1819−1880) works. It was due to the guest performances of Austrian actors that the Hungarian public was able to get to know the French musician’s one-acters featuring two or three characters and his full-evening opéra-bouffes: it was in the summer of 1859 that the company of the Vienna Carl-Theater performed Hochzeit bei Laternenschein (Le Mariage aux lanternes) for the first time in the Buda Summer Theatre which served the entertainment of the German-speaking public at that time making up the majority of the Hungarian capital. The Kolozsvár (Cluj/Klausenburg) company of Mihály Havi (1810−1864) performed the same piece in Hungarian already during the same year, first in Brassó (Braşov/Kronstadt), later at the end of that year in Kolozsvár. It is a sign of the popularity of the new musicotheatrical genre that in July 1861 the company of Offenbach’s Théâtre des Bouffes-Parisiens gave guest performances in the Pest Hungarian National Theatre in French. It was almost at the same time as the French operettas that the similar pieces of the first Viennese authors − the Dalmatian Suppé (1819–1895) and the Croatian Zajc (1832–1914) − appeared in Hungary.

The scene of the first Hungarian-language operetta performances between 1860 and 1864 was partly the Pest National Theater, where Kálmán Szerdahelyi (1829−1872) played an important role as translator, stage director and singing actor. The first Hungarian Theater specializing expressly in entertaining genres was the short-lived Buda Folk Theater (1861−1864; 1867−1870) of György Molnár (1830−1891), following Parisian models. Beside Buda and Pest, the major provincial towns − particularly Kolozsvár and Kassa (Košice/Kaschau) − also played a leading role in the formation of the Hungarian cult of operetta at that time. It was mainly in Kassa that the first actor member of the Latabár dinasty, Endre Latabár (1811−1873) worked, also as theater director and translator of operetta books. The first performance of the Hungarian Szép Heléna translated by Latabár in Kassa in March 1866 may have been in all likelihood the first Hungarian performance of the piece in Hungary − it should be noted, however, that the German version, Die schöne Helena received its premiere already one month earlier in the Pest German Stadttheater.

The authors of the first Hungarian operetta attempts – Géza Allaga (1841–1913),¹ Jakab Jakobi (1827–1882)² and Károly Huber (1828–1885)³ – were pre-eminently theater musicians (although Allaga and Huber were also active as professors at the Pest National Conservatory [Zenede], what is more, Huber as the head of the Violin Faculty of the Budapest Music Academy as well). Their works − if they survive at all − show that they tried to mingle the traditions of the more provincial népszínmű (folk play) genre with the foreign models of operetta. For example, Allaga’s work, A szerelmes kántor (The clerk in love, first perf. in the Buda Folk Theater in 1862) mentioned in the literature as the first Hungarian operetta is nothing else than a funny népszínmű with interpolated folk-like songs.

The early Hungarian operettas, however, did not meet with éclat, not even at the domestic public. The pieces imported from abroad − particularly those coming from Paris − were far more successful. The repertoire of the 1870s was dominated by a new type of operetta, differing from the Offenbachian satires and parodies: the “historical” operetta, represented first and foremost by the pieces of Charles Lecocq (1832−1918). The Austrian pieces were initially not popular in Hungary, despite the fact that from 1871 Johann Strauss Jr (1825−1899) also composed numerous works of this kind, among them Der Zigeunerbaron (first perf. Vienna, Theater an der Vien, 1885; in Budapest in the same year in the Gyapjú Street German Theater [Deutsches Theater in der Wollgasse]), a piece based on a novel by the Hungarian writer Mór Jókai (1825−1904) and reflecting the spirit of the 1867 Austro-Hungarian Compromise. During the 1880s some representatives of the British Savoy opera were also performed in Hungarian; from these pieces only an exotic one playing in Japan, The Mikado (first perf. London, Savoy Theatre, 1885; in the Budapest Folk Theater in 1886), by Sir Arthur Sullivan (1842−1900) proved to be successful.

The End of the Nineteenth Century

It was with the 1875 foundation of the Folk Theater that Hungarian folk-play and operetta found a permanently independent home in Budapest for the first time. The institutional coexistence of the two genres had a great impact on the burgeoning Hungarian version of operetta: the star primadonna of the Folk Theater, Lujza Blaha (1850–1926)⁴ cultivated both genre, similarly to the majority of the operetta composers active at this institution. The Hungarian operetta composers of the last third of the nineteenth century – Ferenc Puks (1839–1887),⁵ Elek Erkel (1843–1893),⁶ József Konti (1852–1905),⁷ Lajos Serly (1855–1939),⁸ Dezső Megyeri (1857–1913),⁹ Béla Hegyi (1858–1922),¹⁰ Szidor Bátor (1860–1929),¹¹ Jenő Sztojanovits (1864–1919)¹² és Béla Szabados (1867–1936)¹³ −, however, failed to create a specific, exportable Hungarian operetta style. The most successful works were composed by Konti, a Polish-born composer of Jewish origin, earlier also active in Vienna and Salzburg; particularly successful were his Az eleven ördög (The living devil; first Hungarian perf. in the Buda Summer Theater [Nyári Színkör], 1884) and A suhanc (The stripling; first perf. in the Budapest Folk Theater, 1888). Both pieces are adaptations of French books, and the charme of Lujza Blaha playing the trouser role of a young boy played a decisive role in the popularity in both cases. Nevertheless, the glorious national past did not meet a big success: the pieces playing in the glorious past of the Hungarian nation, following the example of Lecocq’s historical operettas − such as Huber’s A király csókja (The king’s kiss, first. perf. in the Budapest Folk Theater, 1875), evoking the time of Matthias Corvinus, or Székely Katalin by Elek Erkel (first perf. in the Budapest Folk Theater, 1880) whose plot takes place under the reign of Zsigmond Báthory, Duke of Transylvania − did not become popular. It happened only in the second half of the 1890s that operettas by Hungarian authors began to appear on the program of the Vienna theaters. One of the first such pieces were A kis alamuszi (The little hangdog, first perf. in the Budapest Folk Theater in 1894; in the Vienna Carl-Theater in 1896 as Der kleine Duckmäuser) by József Bokor Jr (1861−1911)¹⁴ and Der Löwenjäger (The lion hunter; first perf. in the Vienna Theater an der Wien in 1896; in the Budapest Folk Theater in 1897 as Az oroszlánvadász) by György Verő (Hugo Hauer; 1857−1941).¹⁵

By the end of the nineteenth century, Budapest had developed to a metropolis with 733 000 inhabitants and became unequivocally the center of the Hungarian operetta production. The assimilation of German-speaking population and the formation of the private theater system took place simultaneously with the process of urbanization. In Buda, German-language performances were banned already in 1870; after this decision the Castle Theater (Várszínház) and the Summer Theater became Hungarian-language theaters. In Pest in the Gyapjú Street, however, a German Theater was working right until 1889, where the stars of Viennese operetta like Marie Geistinger (1836−1939) or Alexander Girardi (1850−1918) regularly appeared. It is a sign of the trend of assimilation that in 1889 the City Park Theater (Városligeti Színkör) of Sigmund Rosenfeld (1849−1939) − who magyarized his name to Zsigmond Feld − also became a Hungarian-language stage. Due to the Hungarian Theater (Magyar Színház) established in 1897 Budapest gained a further Hungarian-language stage and the audience was frequently able to visit operetta performances also in the Gaiety Theater (Vígszínház) open in 1896.

At the Beginning of the Twentieth Century

The period between 1900 and 1918 can be regarded without doubt as the heyday of Hungarian operetta. The works of the composers active at the beginning of the century − Franz/Ferenc Lehár (1870−1948),¹⁶ Ákos Buttykai (1871–1935),¹⁷ Pongrác Kacsoh (1873–1923),¹⁸ Jenő Huszka (1875–1960),¹⁹ Albert Szirmai (1880–1967),²⁰ Béla Zerkovitz (1881–1948),²¹ Imre/Emmerich Kálmán (1882–1953),²² Victor Jacobi (1883–1921)²³ – were mostly played also in Vienna. So much so that Lehár and Kálmán can rightly be regarded as representatives of an Austro-Hungarian school of operetta, since the premieres of their works mostly took place in Vienna, and it was only thereafter that they were translated into Hungarian.

The 1905 premiere of Die lustige Witwe in the Theater an der Wien preceded the 1906 first Hungarian performance of A víg özvegy in the Budapest Hungarian Theater; and Die Csárdásfürstin that later became a Hungarian national operetta, was premiered earlier in the Vienna Johann-Strauss-Theater in 1915 than A csárdáskirályné in the Budapest Király Theater (Király Színház) in 1916. Style hongrois and Gipsy music became an important component part also in the Viennese operetta, and proved very popular. What is more, Lehár Kálmán, Szirmai and Jacobi − the latter three students of the Budapest Academy of Music − made a real international career: some of their works were played even in the New York Broadway theaters.

Not only the Hungarian operetta composers were able to get on abroad: Vilmos (Wilhelm) Karczag (Krammer; 1859−1923),²⁴who from 1901 was director of the Theater an der Wien, later from 1908 the Raimund-Theater in Vienna, was equally successful as an impressario and as a publisher. Hungarian operetta primadonnas like Ilka Pálmay (1859−1945),²⁵Juliska Karczag née Kopácsy (1871−1957),²⁶Sári Fedák (1880−1955)²⁷and Emmi Buttykai née Kosáry (1889−1974)²⁸were also popular outside Hungarian-speaking regions. The activity of composers and performers was helped by prolific and accomplished Hungarian librettists and translatiors: Jenő Heltai (Herzl; 1871−1957),²⁹ Béla Jenbach (1871–1943),³⁰ Jenő Faragó (Frankfurter; 1873–1940),³¹ Miksa Bródy (1875–1924),³² Ferenc Martos (Mittelmann; 1875–1938),³³ Adolf Mérei (Merkl; 1877–1918),³⁴ Árpád Pásztor (Pickler; 1877–1940),³⁵ Károly Bakonyi (1873–1926),³⁶ Imre Földes (Fleischmann; 1881–1958),³⁷ Andor Gábor (Greiner; 1884–1953).³⁸

The first two theater successes of the beginning of the century, Bob herceg by Huszka (Prince Bob, first perf. in the Budapest Folk Theater in 1902), and János vitéz by Kacsoh (Heroe John, first perf. in the Budapest Király Theater in 1904) still followed the nineteenth-century tradition: the title role of both pieces was created by the primadonna in trouser, Sári Fedák. Trouser roles, however, became more and more outdated and the “dramaturgy of four-in-hand” took increasingly over, in which the plot of the piece centered round two couples, the primadonna−bonvivant and the soubrette−comic. As Moritz Csáky pointed out, the subject choice of operettas truly reflected the ethnic and cultural variety and the social class differences of the Habsburg monarchy, but unlike the reality the conflicts between the protagonists dissolved in fairy-tale-like happy end. The changes of the Budapest theater landscape show the popularity of the genre: it was in 1903 that the Király Theater specialized for operetta was open; many operettas were given in the Folk Opera (Népopera; from 1917: Municipal Theater [Városi Színház]) founded in 1911; and operettas were regularly performed in the cabarets and music halls of the capital city as well. The Folk Theater, however, was not able to endure the competition and stopped in 1908; the Hungarian Theater in turn became a spoken theater already in 1907.

Between the Two World Wars

The dissolution of the Habsburg Monarchy and the historical Hungarian State after the end of the First World War resulted in new conditions also for the operetta. It shows the vitality of the Budapest theater industry that after becoming independent from Vienna, the Hungarian capital was able to become an autonomous center of international entertainment as equal partner of such metropolises as Berlin and New York. The series of operetta theaters was broadened by new ones: in 1919 the Revue Theater (Revü Színház) was established, which also had a summer theater (Scala Theater) and later, between 1921 and 1925 worked as Blaha Lujza Theater. In 1922 the Capital City Operetta Theater (Fővárosi Operettszínház) was established, which also had a secondary theater building between 1929 and 1933 under the name Summer Operetta Theater (Nyári Operettszínház). This is remarkable even if we take into account that in 1936 two institutions of long tradition consecrated to the genre, the Buda Summer Theater and the Király Theater ceased. Operetta acquired, however, new media due to the radio broadcasts started in 1925 and to the sound-films produced from 1931.

The composers starting their career or mostly active in the period between the two World Wars − Dénes Buday (1890−1963),³⁹ Pál Ábrahám (1892–1960),⁴⁰ Mihály Krasznay (Krausz; 1897–1940),⁴¹ Mihály Eisemann (Egresi; 1898–1966),⁴² Lajos Lajtai (1900–1966),⁴³ Pál Gyöngy (1902–1990),⁴⁴ Miklós Brodszky (Nicholas Brodsky; 1905–1958)⁴⁵ and Szabolcs Fényes (1912–1986)⁴⁶ – composed works whose style was decisively influenced by the new international style of entertaining music, the jazz, and by its new dances: the tango, the shimmy, the charleston, the foxtrot and the slow “English waltz”, the valse Boston. Beside the jazz operetta − for example Miss Amerika by Eisemann (first perf. in the Capital City Operetta Theater in 1929) or Viktória by Ábrahám (first perf. in the Király Theater in 1930) − the genre called “sad operetta” by Dezső Kosztolányi, in which the obligatory happy end is omitted, and which is characterized by serious, operatic style, can be regarded as a new type of operetta. Several works by the late Lehár can be rated to this type, for example Das Land des Lächelns (The land of smiles, revised version of Die gelbe Jacke [The yellow jacket]; first perf. in the Berlin Metropoltheater in 1929; in the Budapest Hungarian Royal Opera House in 1930 as A mosoly országa). Hungarian operetta remained a saleable item of export abroad also during the 1920s and 30s: world premieres of pieces by Ábrahám took place in Leipzig (Die Blume von Hawai [The flower of Hawaii], 1931), in Berlin (Ball im Savoy [Ball at the Savoy], 1932), in Vienna (Dschainah, das Mädchen im Tanzhaus [Dshainah, the girl from the dance house], 1931; Märchen im Grand-Hotel [A tale in the Grand Hotel],1934); Tonton by Lajos Lajtai was first performed in Paris (1935). Hungarian operetta performers like Gitta Alpár (1900−1991),⁴⁷ Rózsi Bársony (1909–1977)⁴⁸ and Marika Rökk (1913–2004)⁴⁹continued to be popular abroad. It should be noted that the flight from Nazism played an important role in the international career of numerous Hungarian operetta composers and performers of Jewish origin. Much of those who remained at home did not survive the Second World War, like Mihály Nádor (Neubauer; 1882−1944).⁵⁰ who made international success with his operetta entitled Offenbach (first perf. in the Budapest Király Theater in 1920).

After the Second World War

The vicissitudes of operetta and its cultivators did not come to an end after the termination of the Second World War. With the establishment of the Stalinist dictatorship theaters were nationalized in 1949 and in Sovietized Hungary operetta from an entertaining genre became a vehicle of propaganda. Following the nationalization, a new operetta theater was created under the name Capital City Gaiety Theater (Fővárosi Vígszínház, 1951−1954). The Capital City Operetta Theater, which for a short time also acquired a second building (Blaha Lujza Theater, 1954−1960) became the leading workshop of operetta under the directorship of Margit Gáspár (1949−1956).⁵¹ Its productions were regularly performed also in the provincial municipal theaters, and the operetta dump of the solitary rural small villages was provided by the State Village Theater (Állami Faluszínház; from 1955: State Mrs Déry Theater [Állami Dériné Színház]). A number of radio and film operettas were also created, of course likewise reflecting the obligatory optimism of the period − Zengő erdő (Resounding forest, 1951) by Ferenc Farkas (1905−2000)⁵²belongs to the first category, 2x2 néha 5 (Two times two is sometimes five, 1954) to the latter. Though regular television broadcasting began only in 1958, an attempt for creating a television operetta (Eljegyzés lámpafénynél by Offenbach) was already made in 1957.

The repertoire of the socialized Capital City Operetta Theatre differed significantly from that of the earlier private theatres: from the works by foreign authors only the pieces by Soviet people and those by authors from the Eastern Bloc were played, first of all the operettas (The Free Wind, Trembita) by Dunajevsky (1900–1955) and Milyutin (1903–1968). The new works by Hungarian authors followed pre-eminently the Soviet model. At the same time, however, the productions stood for use and appropriate the undiminished popularity of the stars of inter-World War boulevard theatre tradition (Kálmán Latabár [1902–1970],⁵³ Hanna Honthy [Hajnalka Hügel; 1893–1978]⁵⁴) − as Gyöngyi Heltai has pointed out. The first Hungarian Socialist Realist operetta was Aranycsillag [The golden star; first perf. in 1950]; its libretto was largely written by György Hámos (1910–1976),⁵⁵its music by Endre Székely (1912–1989).⁵⁶ Boci-boci tarka (Spotted, spotted cow, cow; first. perf. in 1953), a kolkhoz operetta by Ottó Vincze (1906–1984),⁵⁷ was made in a similar spirit; written by Mátyás Csizmarek⁵⁸ and Ernő Innocent Vincze,⁵⁹ the libretto of this operetta, in which two living calves also acted, treated the subject of class struggle in the village and that of the collectivization of agriculture. A specific feature of Socialist Realist operettas is the simultaneous use of the old operetta style and that of the heroic mass songs, furthermore, in certain cases also that of the folksong arrangements and folkloristic style following Kodály’s instruction. Most of them met no success; Állami áruház (first perf. in 1952) by János Kerekes (1913–1996),⁶⁰ whose film version mixing didactic and entertaining elements proved to be surprisingly popular, is an exception. The classics of the genre, the works by Offenbach, Lehár and Imre Kálmán were allowed to be performed only after careful rewriting of the librettos. One of them, the adaptation of A csárdáskirálynő (The Gipsy princess; perf. in 1954) made by István Békeffy and Dezső Kellér met a tremendous success − not only in Hungary but during the guest performence of the Capital City Operetta Theatre (1955/56) also in Moscow and Leningrad. Operetta continued to be produced under state control for a while after the 1956 revolution as well; for example, Bástyasétány 77 (Bastion promenade 77) by Mihály Eisemann, first performed in 1957 in Szeged, in which jazz (in earlier years condemned as imperialist and prohibited) played an important role again, was a big success. From the end of the 1950s, however, with the advent of new trends of popular music, operetta became more and more old-fashioned genre; its function was taken over by the musical. During the 1959 production of La Belle Hélène in the Capital City Operetta Theatre, the Spartan youngsters already danced rock and roll − for great astonishment of the critics; the 1960 opening of the Petőfi Theatre specialized for musical likewise signalized the beginning of a new period of entertaining music theatre.

Selected Bibliography

General Surveys on the Genre

Keller, Otto. Die Operette in ihrer geschichtlichen Entwicklung: Musik, Libretto, Darstellung (Leipzig–Wien-New York: [k. n.], 1926).
Grun, Bernhard. Kulturgeschichte der Operette (Berlin: Musikverl., 21967 [11961]).
Dahlhaus, Carl. “Opéra bouffe, Operette, Savoy Opera”, in Die Musik des 19. Jahrhunderts (Wiesbaden: Athenaion, 1980) = Neues Handbuch der Musikwissenschaft, Bd. 6, 187–197.
Csáky Móric (Moritz Csáky). Ideologie der Operette und Wiener Moderne (Wien−Köln−Weimar: Böhlau, 1996).
Lamb, Andrew. “Operetta”, in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. by Stanley Sadie (London: Macmillan, 2001), vol. 18, 493–498.
Traubner, Richard. Operetta: A Theatrical History (New York/London: Routledge, 2/2003 [1/1983]).

Offenbach and French Operetta

Dörffeldt, Siegfried. Die musikalische Parodie bei Offenbach (Diss., Frankfurt am Main: Johann-Wolfgang-Goethe-Universität, 1954).
Bruyas, Florian. Histoire de l’opérette en France (Lyon: Vitte, 1973).
Schipperges, Thomas, Christoph Dohr und Kerstin Rüllke (eds.). Bibliotheca Offenbachiana (Köln: Verlag Dohr, 1998) = Beiträge zur Offenbach-Forschung, hrsg. von Christoph Dohr, Bd. 1.
Lamb, Andrew. “Jacques, Offenbach”, in The New Grove Dictionary of Opera, ed. by Stanley Sadie, vol. 3 (London: Macmillan, 1992),653–658.
Franke, Rainer (ed.). Offenbach und die Schauplätze seines Musiktheaters (Laaber: Laaber-Verlag, 1999).
Yon, Jean-Claude. Jacques Offenbach (Paris: Gallimard, 2000).
Bozó, Péter. “Choufleuri úr szalonjában, avagy A Théâtre-Italien görbe tükre” [In M. Choufleuri’s salon or the crooked mirror of the Théâtre-Italien]. Magyar Zene 45/2 (May 2007), 183–199.
Schmierer, Elisabeth (ed.). Jacques Offenbach und seine Zeit (Laaber: Laaber, 2009).
Bozó, Péter. “‘Orphée à l’envers’ – Egy idézet a francia zenés színpadi hagyomány kontextusában” [“Orphée à l’envers”: A quotation in the context of French musicotheatrical tradition], Muzsika 53/10 (October 2010), 11–15. [Part 1]; 53/11 (November 2010), 23–26. [Part 2].
Id. “‘Die Tiroler sind lustig.’ Offenbach és a tyrolienne”, Magyar Zene 50/2 (2012. május), 169–186.

Operetta in the Habsburg Monarchy

Galamb, Sándor. “A magyar operett első évtizedei” [The first decades of Hungarian operetta], Budapesti Szemle 204/592(December 1926), 359–390.
Koch, Lajos. Kacsoh Pongrác János vitéze. Adalék a budapesti színjátszás történetéhez [Heroe John by Pongrác Kacsoh: To the history of Budapest theatre practice](Budapest: Fővárosi Könyvtár, 1942).
Hadamowsky, Franz und Heinz Otte. Die Wiener Operette. Ihre Theater- und Wirkungsgeschichte (Wien: Bellaria, 1947).
Gromes, Hartwin. Vom Alt-Wiener Volksstück zur Wiener Operette: Beiträge zur Wandlung einer bürgerlichen theatralischen Unterhaltungsform im XIX. Jh. (München: Mehdizadeh, 1967).
Bódis, Mária. Két színházi siker a századelőn [Two theatrical successes at the Turn of the Century] (Budapest: Magyar Színházi Intézet, 1984).
Fleziwicsá Co. Die Wiener Operette. 91. Sonderausstellung, Wien 20. Dezember 1984 bis 10. Februar 1985, hrsg. von Otto Brusatti, Wilhelm Deutschmann (Wien: Wiener Stadt- und Landesbibliothek, 1985).
Batta, András. Träume sind Schäume… Die Operette in der Donaumonarchie, übers. von Maria Eisenreich (Budapest: Corvina, 1992).
Hanák, Péter. “A bécsi és budapesti operett kultúrtörténeti helye” [The place of Viennese and Budapest operetta in cultural history], Budapesti Negyed 5/2–3 (1997), 9–30.
Nagy, Ildikó. “Vom Volksstück bis zur »Nationalen« Operette”, in Mitteleuropa – Idee, Wissenschaft und Kultur im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert. Beiträge aus österreichischer und ungarischer Sicht, hrsg. von Plaschka, Richard G., Horst Haselsteiner und Anna M. Drabek (Wien: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1997) = Zentraleuropa-Studien, Bd. 4, 131–145.
Fink Monika. “Ballszenen in Operetten”, International Review of the Aesthetics and Sociology of Music 29/1 (June 1998), 3–9.
Batta, András. “Magyar operett az Osztrák-Magyar Monarchia utolsó évtizedeiben” [Hungarian operetta in the last decades of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy], and “Magyar operett a Monarchia széthullása után” [Hungarian operetta after the disintegration of the Monarchy], in Magyarország a 20. században [Hungary in the twentieth century],III: Kultúra, művészet, sport és szórakozás [Culture, art, sport and entertainment],ed. by István Kollega Tarsoly (Szekszárd: Babits, 1998), 505–510 and 515–517.
Batta, András. “Austro-Hungarian Operetta under the Monarchy”, in Music in Hungary: An Illustrated History, ed. by János Kárpáti (Budapest: Rózsavölgyi, 2011), 206–220.
Forgács D., Péter. “A czigánybáró operett igaz története” [True history of the operetta The Gipsy Baron], Új Forrás 37/3 (March 2005), 33–43.
Gerő, András, Hargitai, Dorottya and Gajdó, Tamás. A Csárdáskirálynő. Egy monarchikum története [The Gipsy Princess: The History of a Monarchicum] (Budapest: Pannonica, 2006).
Roser, Hans-Dieter. Franz von Suppé. Werk und Leben (Wien: Steinbauer, 2007).
Schmidl, Stefan. “‘Dort ist die ganze Welt noch rotweißgrün!’ – Diskurse über Kollektive, Alteritäten und Nation in der Operette Österreich-Ungarns”, Studia Musicologica 52 (2012), 109−122.

Operetta in Hungary Between the Two World Wars

Albertsen, Leif Ludwig. “Zur Ästhetik der Operette und ihrer Krise in der Zwischenkriegszeit”, Studia Musicologica 32/1 (1990), 421–445.
Stachó, Lászó. “Szép vagy, gyönyörű vagy… Magyarország?” [You are beautiful, you are lovely… Hungary?], Muzsika 49/5 (May 2006), 36–40.
Heltai, Gyöngyi. “Bulvárszereposztás: női szerep- és identitásmodellek a két háború közötti operettben és színházi sajtóban, 1920–1938” [Boulevard casting: models of woman role and identity between the inter-World-War theatrical press, 1910−1938], Sic Itur Ad Astra 19/58 (2008), 233–268.
Id. “Orfeum az operettben. A pesti zenés színházi szórakoztatás helyszíneinek fikcionalizálása” [Orpheum in the operetta: The fictionalization of the scenes of Budapest entertaining music theatre], in Terek, tervek, történetek [Spaces, Plans, Histories], ed. by András Cieger (Budapest: Atelier, 2011), 169–190.
Id. “A két háború közti pesti operett stiláris és ideológiai dilemmái: a Király Színház példája (1920–1936)” [Stylistic and ideological dilemmas of the Budapest operetta between the two World Wars: the case of the Király Theatre], Tánctudományi Közlemények 3/1 (2011), 53–68. (Part 1); 3/2 (2011), 33–75. (Part 2).

Operetta in Hungary in the 1950s

Kroó, György. A magyar zeneszerzés 25 éve [25 years of Hungarian composition] (Budapest: Zeneműkiadó, 1971).
Szemere, Anna. “A sematizmus ‘vívmánya’: a szocialista realista operett” [The ‘achievement’ of schematism: the Socialis Realist operetta], in Zenetudományi Dolgozatok 1979 , ed. by Mária Domokos and Melinda Berlász (MTA Zenetudományi Intézete, 1979), 145–151.
Tokaji, András. Mozgalom és hivatal. Tömegdal Magyarországon, 1945–1956 [Movement and office: Mass song in Hungary, 1945−1956] (Budapest: Zeneműkiadó, 1983).
Id. “A kommunizmus zenekultúrája Magyarországon és a többi volt kommunista országban” [The music culture of Communism in Hungary and in the remaining Postcommunist countries], in Zenetudományi dolgozatok 1997–1998 (Budapest: MTA Zenetudományi Intézet, 1998), 163–178.
Heltai, Gyöngyi. “Egy anekdota margójára” [On the margin of an anecdote], Napút 4/2 (March 2002), 7–35.
Id. “Latyi a Nemzeti előtt. A Latabár Kálmán-féle ‘öncélú’ játékmód színháztörténeti, nézői és politikai értékelése” [Latyi in front of the National Theatre: The evaluation of the Latabár Kálmán-style way of acting for its own sake, from the point of view of theatre history, of the spectator and of the politics], Napút 5/2 (March 2003), 51–70.
Id. “A ‘vendégjáték rítus’ kockázatai. A Csárdáskirálynő Romániában 1958-ban” [The risks of ‘guest performance rite’: The Gipsy Princess in Romania], Korall 13 (September 2003), 125–143.
Id. “Operett-diplomácia. A Csárdáskirálynő a Szovjetúnióban 1955–1956 fordulóján” [Operetta diplomac: The Gipsy Princess in The Sovietunion at the turn of 1955−1956], Aetas 2004/3–4, 87–119.
Id. “Fedák Sári mint ‘emlékezeti hely’. A bulvárszínházi kulturális örökség átértékelése” [Sári Fedák as a ‘site of memory’. The reevaluation of the boulevard theatre cultural heritage], Korall 17 (September 2004), 167–192.
Id. “Operett-barátság. Az interetnikus reprezentáció elvei és gyakorlata a szocialista operettben” [Operetta friendship: The Principles and practice of interetnic representation in the Socialist operetta], Regio 16/1 (2005), 71–96.
Korossy, Zsuzsa. “Színházirányítás a Rákosi-korszak első felében” [The direction of theatres in the first half of the Rákosi era], in Színház és politika. Színháztörténeti tanulmányok, 1949–1989 [Theatre and politics: Studies in theatre history], ed. by Tamás Gajdó (Budapest: Országos Színháztörténeti Múzeum és Intézet, 2007), 45–137.
Heltai, Gyöngyi. “Az operett eredetmítoszai és a politika (1949–1956). ‘Kitalált tradíció’ működésben” [The myths of origin of operetta and politics (1949−1956)], in Atelier-iskola: tanulmányok Granasztói György tiszteletére [Atelier School: Studies in honour of György Granasztói], ed. by Gábor Czoch, Judit Klement and Gábor Sonkoly (Budapest, Atelier, 2008), 343–371.
Id. “Kulturális szigetek, pluralizmus, kreolizáció? A szocialista realista operett interkulturális modellje” [Cultural islands, pluralism, creolization? The intercultural model of Socialist Realist operetta], Világosság 2009/7–8, 81–118.
Gajdó, Tamás. “Színház és diktatúra – Magyarországon” [Theatre and dictatorship in Hungary], in Színház és diktatúra a 20. században [Theatre and dictatorship in the twentieth century](Budapest: Corvina/OSZMI, 2011), 338–382.
Heltai, Gyöngyi. Usages de l’opérette pendant la période socialiste en Hongrie (1949–1968) (Budapest: Collection Atelier Könyvtár, 2011).
Id. Az operett metamorfózisai, 1945–1956. A „kapitalista giccs”-től a haladó „mimusjáték”-ig [The metamorphoses of operetta, 1945−1956: From the ‘capitalist kitch’ to the ‘progressive mime’] (Budapest: ELTE Eötvös Kiadó, 2012).

General Works on Theatrical History

A Magyarországon megjelent színházi zsebkönyvek bibliográfiája. XVIII–XIX. század [Bibliography of the theatre almanachs published in Hungary. The eighteenth and nineteenth century], ed. by Elemér Hankiss and Berczeli A. Károlyné (Budapest: OSZK, 1961).
Staud, Géza. A magyar színháztörténet forrásai, I: Szövegkönyvek, színlapok, zsebkönyvek; II: A színházi sajtó. Emlékiratok, levelek. Levéltári anyagok; III: Képes ábrázolások. Jogszabályok. Tárgyi emlékek. Egyéb források. Szakirodalom [The sources of Hungarian theatrical history. Vol. 1: Librettos, playbills, almanachs; Vol. 2: The theatrical press. Personal recollections, letters. Archival sources; Vol. 3: Picturial representations. Laws. Artifacts. Other sources. Literature] (Budapest: Színháztudományi Intézet, 1962).
Taródy-Nagy, Béla (ed.). Színpad és közönség. Magyar színházi adatok [Stage and audience. Hungarian theatrical data], vols.I–II (Budapest: Színháztudományi Intézet, 1962).
Alpár, Ágnes and Szakáts, Károly. A magyar színházak műsora, 1949–1969 [The program of Hungarian theatres, 1949−1969], vols.I–II(Budapest: Magyar Színházi Intézet, 1970).
Wolfgang Binal. Deutschsprachiges Theater in Budapest (Wien–Köln–Graz: Böhlaus Nachf., 1972).
Székely, György, Kerényi, Ferenc, Gajdó, Tamás and Balázs, Éva (eds.).  Magyar színháztörténet [Hungarian theatrical history], vol.1: 1790–1873 (Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1990); vol. 2: 1873–1920 (Budapest: Magyar Könyvklub, 2001); vol. 3: 1920–1949 (Budapest: Magyar Könyvklub, 2005).
Székely, György (ed.). Magyar Színházművészeti Lexikon [Hungarian theatrological lexicon] (Budapest: Akadémiai, 1994).
Egyed, Emese (ed.). “A Magyarországon megjelent színházi zsebkönyvek bibliográfiája. XVIII–XIX. század. Kiegészítés” [Bibliography of the theatre almanachs published in Hungary. The eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Supplement], in Theátrumi könyvecske. Színházi zsebkönyvek és szerepük a régió színházi kultúrájában [Theatrical booklet. Theatre almanachs and their role in the theatrical culture of our region] (Kolozsvár: Scientia, 2002), 167–200.

History and Program of Individual Theatres

Pukánszkyné Kádár, Jolán. A Nemzeti Színház százéves története [The hundred-year history of the Pest National Theatre] (Budapest: Magyar Történelmi Társulat, 1940), 177–178.
Mályuszné Császár Edit. A budai Népszínház műsora. (Adattár) [The program of the Buda Folk Theatre. A register] (Budapest: Színháztudományi és Filmtudományi Intézet / Országos Színháztörténeti Múzeum, 1957) = Színháztörténeti füzetek, vol. 10.
Id. Molnár György, a rendező [György Molnár, the stage director] (Budapest: Színháztudományi Intézet, 1964) = Színháztörténeti könyvtár, vol. 16.
Pukánszkyné Kádár, Jolán. A Budai Népszínház története [The history of the Buda Folk Theatre] (Budapest: Magyar Színházi Intézet, 1979).
Heltai, Gyöngyi. “Népszínház a nemzetépítésben. A szakmai diskurzus kialakulása (1861–1881)” [Folk theatre in the nation-building: The formation of the professional discourse (1861−1881)], Korall 37/10 (November 2009), 57–89.
Alpár, Ágnes. Az István Téri Színház [The Theatre on the Pest István Square](Budapest: MSZI, 1986) = Színháztörténeti füzetek 76.
Koch, Lajos. A Budai Nyári Színkör (Adattár) [The Buda Summer Theatre. A register] (Budapest: Színháztudományi Intézet Országos Színháztörténeti Múzeum, 1966) =  Színháztörténeti füzetek, vol.46.
Alpár, Ágnes. A Városligeti Színkör, 1889–1934 [The Budapest City Park Theatre, 1889−1934] (Budapest: OSZMI, 1991).
Id. A Városliget színházai [The theatres of the Budapest City Park] (Budapest: OSZMI, 2001), 29.
Berczeli A. Károlyné. “A Népszínház könyvtára” [The library of the Folk Theatre], in Az Országos Széchényi Könyvtár Évkönyve [Yearbook of the Széchényi National Library](Budapest: OSZK, 1958), 369–378.
Id. A Népszínház műsora (Adattár.) [The program of the Folk Theatre. A register] (Budapest: Színháztudományi és Filmtudományi Intézet / Országos Színháztörténeti Múzeum, 1958) = Színháztörténeti könyvtár, vol. 20.
Kolta, Magdolna. A Népszínház iratai [The archival sources of the Folk Theatre] (Budapest: Magyar Színházi Intézet, 1986) = Színháztörténeti könyvtár, vol. 16.
Heltai, Gyöngyi. “‘Ott tanult meg a pesti ember magyarul nevetni és magyarul sírni’ – Népszínházi nemzetdiskurzusok” [‘It was there that the people of Budapest learned to laugh in Hungarian and to weep in Hungarian], in Nemzeti látószögek a 19. századi Magyarországon [National points of view in the nineteenth-century Hungary] (Budapest: Atelier Könyvtár, 2010), 213–264.
Koch, Lajos. A budapesti Operaház műsora. 1884–1959. (Adattár). [The program of the Budapest Opera House, 1884−1959. A register](Budapest: Színháztudományi Intézet, Országos Színháztörténeti Múzeum: 1959) = Színháztörténeti füzetek, vol. 30.
Staud, Géza, (ed.). A budapesti Operaház 100 éve [Hundred years of the Budapest Opera House] (Budapest: Zeneműkiadó, 1984).
Alpár, Ágnes. Az Óbudai Kisfaludy Színház, 1892–1934 [The Óbuda Kisfaludy Theatre] (Budapest: OSZMI, 1991) = Színháztörténeti füzetek, vol.80.
Berczeli A. Károlyné. A Vígszínház műsora, 1896–1949 [The program of the Budapest Gaiety Theatre, 1896−1949](Budapest: Színháztudományi Intézet / Országos Színháztudományi Múzeum, 1960) = Színháztörténeti füzetek, vol. 33.
Koch, Lajos. A budapesti Magyar Színház műsora [The program of the Budapest Hungarian Theatre](Budapest: Színháztudományi Intézet / Országos Színháztörténeti Múzeum, 1960) = Színháztörténeti füzetek, vol. 24.
Rajnai, Edit. “A budapesti Magyar Színház első tíz éve (1897–1907)” [The first decade of the Budapest Hungarian Theatre], in Színháztudományi Szemle, vol.16 (Budapest: Magyar Színházi Intézet, 1985), 115–188.
Id. “A Magyar Színház műsorpolitikájának története (1907–1918)” [The history of the program policy of the Hungarian Theatre”], in Színháztudományi Szemle 30–31, ed. by Ferenc Kerényi and Margit Török (Budapest: OSZMI, 1996), 172–195.
Koch, Lajos. A budapesti Király Színház műsora. (Adattár). [The program of the Budapest Király Theatre. A register] (Budapest: Színháztudományi és Filmtudományi Intézet / Országos Színháztörténeti Múzeum, 1958) = Színháztörténeti füzetek, vol. 21.
Molnár, Klára. A Népopera – Városi Színház, 1911–1955 [The Budapest Folk Opera − Municipal Theatre, 1911−1955](Budapest: Országos Színháztörténeti Intézet és Múzeum, 1998).
Koch Lajos. A Fővárosi Operettszínház (VI., Nagymező u. 17) műsora, 1923–1973 [The program of the Capital City Operetta Theatre (6th district, Nagymező Street) 17, 1923−1973] (Budapest: Magyar Színházi Intézet, 1973) = Színháztörténeti füzetek, vol. 55.
Alpár Ágnes. Adatok a huszadik századi magyar kabaré zenéjéhez [Data to the history of twentieth-century Hungarian cabaret] (study ordered by Tibor Tallián. Typescript, MTA Zenetudományi Intézet).
Id. A fővárosi kabarék műsora, 1901–1944 [The program of the Budapest cabarets] (Budapest: Magyar Színházi Intézet, 1978).
Id. A fővárosi kabarék műsora, 1945–1980 [The program of the Budapest cabarets] (Budapest: Magyar Színházi Intézet, 1981).

Lexica Containing Entries on Individual Authors and Works

^Szinnyei = Szinnyei József, Magyar írók élete és munkái [Lives and works of Hungarian writers], vols.I–XIV (Budapest: Hornyánszky, 1891–1914).
^Pallas = A Pallas nagy lexikona [The great lexicon by Pallas],ed. by József Bokor (Budapest: Pallas, 1893−1900).
^Révai = Révai nagy lexikona [The great lexicon by Révai],ed by Mór Révai (Budapest: Pallas, 1911−1926).
^MZSL = Magyar zsidó lexikon [Hungarian Jewish lexicon], ed. by Péter Ujvári (Budapest: Pallas, 1929).
^Schöpflin = Magyar színművészeti lexikon. A magyar színjátszás és drámairodalom enciklopédiája [Hungarian theatre lexicon. The encyclopedia of Hungarian theatre practice and drama literature], vols.I–IV, ed. by Aladár Schöpflin (Budapest: Országos Színészegyesület és Nyugdíjintézete, [1929–1931]).
^{Szabolcsi-Tóth} = Zenei lexikon. A zenetörténet és zenetudomány enciklopédiája [Lexicon of music. The encyclopedia of music history and musicology], ed. by Bence Szabolcsi and Aladár Tóth, vols. I–II. (Budapest: Győző Andor, 1935).
^Bartha = Bartha, Dénes, (ed.). Zenei lexikon [Lexicon of music], the first edition ed. by Bence Szabolcsi and Aladár Tóth (Budapest: Zeneműkiadó, 1965).
^MIL =Magyar irodalmi lexikon [Lexicon of Hungarian literature],ed. by Marcell Benedek (Budapest: Akadémiai, 1963).
^MÉL =Magyar életrajzi lexikon [Hungarian biographical lexicon], ed. by Ágnes Kenyeres, vols. I–IV (Budapest: Akadémiai, 1967–1994).
^BR = Boronkay, Antal (ed.). Brockhaus–Riemann zenei lexikon, editors of the German edition:. Carl Dahlhaus and Hans Heinrich Eggebrecht (Budapest: Zeneműkiadó, 1983–1985).
^Pipers = Dahlhaus, Carl und Sieghart Döhring, (eds.). Pipers Enzyklopädie des Musiktheaters (München/Zürich: Piper, 1991).
^{Grove Opera} = Sadie, Stanley (ed.). The New Grove Dictionary of Opera (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992).
^MGG = Finscher, Ludwig (ed.). Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart (Kassel/Stuttgart: Bärenreiter/Metzler, 1994–2008).
^Székely =Magyar színházművészeti lexikon [Hungarian theatrical lexicon], ed. by György Székely (Budapest: Akadémiai, 1994).
^ÚMIL =Új magyar irodalmi lexikon [New lexicon of Hungarian literature], ed. by László Péter (Budapest: Akadémiai, 1994).
^Grove = Sadie, Stanley (ed.). The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001).
^Gänzl = Gänzl, Kurt. The Encyclopedia of the Musical Theatre (New York: Schirmer, 2001).
^ÚMÉL = Új magyar életrajzi lexikon [New Hungarian biographical lexicon], ed. by. László Markó, vols. I–VII (Budapest: Magyar Könyvklub, 2001–2007).
^ÖML = Österreichisches Musiklexikon, ed. by Rudolf Flotzinger, 5 vols. (Wien: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 2002–2006).

Yearbooks, Letters, Personal Recollections, Other Publications of Source Value

^MMA [with the corresponding year] = Magyar művészeti almanach / Magyar színészeti almanach [Hungarian theatrical almanach], ed. by Henrik Incze
^NSZ [with the corresponding year] = almanachs of the Pest National Theatre
^Operaház [with the corresponding year] = yearbooks of the Hungarian Royal / State Opera House
^ZAK [with the corresponding year] = yearbooks of the Budapest Music Academy
^Zenede [with the corresponding year] = yearbooks of the Budapest National Conservatory
Molnár, György. Budai Népszínházi ügyek és alapterv vázlat egy részvénytársulat által Pesten alapítandó operette, látványos és népies magyar színházra [Things of the Buda Folk Theatre and ground plan sketches to an operetta, spectacular and folk-like Hungarian theatre to be established in Pest] (Buda: Bagó, 1869).
Id. Világostól Világosig. Emlékeimből, I: Világos előtt (Szabadka: Schlesinger, 1880); II: A budai népszinház második cziklusáig, 1849–1867 (Arad: Ungerleider, 1881); III: Világos után (Arad: Ungerleider, 1882). [From Világos to Világos. From my memories. Vol. I: Before Világos; vol. II: To the second cycle of the Buda Folk Theatre, 1849−1867; vol. III: After Világos].
Puks, Ferenc. A budapesti Népszinház színfal titkai vagy a budapesti Népszinház mai viszonyai- s állapotának leirása, fölemlitésével ugy a Népszinház, mint átalán a magyar szinügy ujjá szervezési módozatának [Behind the scenes of the Budapest Folk Theatre or The description of the present state and conditions of the Budapest Folk Theatre, with the description how to re-organize the Folk Theatre and the Hungarian theatre practice in general] (Budapest: author’s edition, 1882).
Krecsányi, Ignác. A magyar színészet térfoglalása Budán 1883-ban [The headway of Hungarian theatre in Buda in 1883] (Temesvár: Csendes, 1910).
Kosztolányi, Dezső. “Az új operett” [The new operetta], Színházi Élet 10/6 (1921. febr. 6–12.), 1–2.
Verő, György. A Népszínház Budapest színi életében, 1875–1925 [The Folk Theatre in Budapest’s theatrical life, 1875−1925] (Budapest: Franklin, 1/1925, 2/1926).
Rákosi, Jenő. Emlékezések [Memoires],vol. 1–3 (Budapest: Franklin, 1926).
Feld Zsigmond szinigazgató emlékiratai. Feld Zsigmond elbeszélése nyomán kiadja: Feld Olga [Memoires of the theatre director Zsigmond Feld. Published on the basis of his account by Olga Feld] (Budapest: Elbert és Társa, 1938).
Gáspár, Margit. Az operett [The operetta] (Budapest: Népszava, 1949) = Kultúriskola, 5.
Várady, László. “A zene szerepe az operettben” [The role of music in the operetta], Új Zenei Szemle 3/9 (September 1952), 8–11.
Az operett kérdéseiről. A Fővárosi Operettszínház ankétja 1954. december 14–15-én [On the issues of operetta. Conferenc of the Capital City Operetta Theatre on 14−15 December 1954](Magyar Színház- és Filmművészeti Szövetség, 1955) = Színházművészeti írások, 5.
Székely, György. Zenés színpad – vidám játék [Music theatre − Joyful play] (Budapest: Színháztudományi Intézet, 1961).
Gáspár, Margit. Stiefkind der Musen. Operette von der Antike bis Offenbach, übers. von Hans Skirecki (Berlin: Lied der Zeit, 1969).
Kellér, Dezső. Kortársak és sorstársak [Contemporaries and fellow sufferers] (Budapest: Szépirodalmi, 1971).
Rátonyi, Róbert. Operett [Operetta], vols. I–II (Budapest: Zeneműkiadó, 1984).
Dancs Istvánné (ed.). A Vallás- és Közoktatásügyi Minisztérium színházi iratai, 1946–1949 [Theatrical sources of the Ministry for Religion and Public Education] (Budapest: Országos Színháztörténeti Múzeum és Intézet, 1990), I–II. köt. = Színháztörténeti könyvtár, vol.25.
Szirtes, György. Színház a Broadway-n [My theatres on the Broadway] (Budapest: Népszava, 1/1990; augmented edition: Budapest: Polgart, 2005).
Goninet, Philippe (ed.). Jacques Offenbach: Lettres à Henri Meilhac et Ludovic Halévy (Paris: Séguier, 1994).
Venczel, Sándor. “Virágkor tövisekkel. Beszélgetés Gáspár Margittal” [Flourish with thorns. An interview with Margit Gáspár], Színház 32/8 (August 1999), 16–21. [Part 1]; 32/9 (September 1999), 39–42. [Part 2]; 32/10 (October 1999), 46–48. [Part 3].
Székely, György. “Operettszínház – 1956” [Operetta Theatre, 1956], Színház 44/11 (November 2011).
Gajdó, Tamás. “A falusi színpadoktól a Nagymező utcáig. Székely György portréja” [From the provincial stages to the Nagymező Street: The portrait of György Székely], Parallel 21 (September 2011), 15–23. [Part 1]; 22 (December 2011), 5–13. [Part 2].

Notes

* This study was written with the support of the Hungarian Scientific Research Fund (OTKA), as part of the postdoctoral research program entitled “Operetta in Hungary” (PD 83524). The English version was prepared as part of the so-called Lendület (Momentum) program (No. 80806) of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences.

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